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{{Short description|Study of genetic basis of political behavior and attitudes}}
{{Politics}}
'''Genopolitics''' is the study of the genetic basis of political behavior and attitudes. It combines [[behavior genetics]], [[psychology]], and [[political science]] and it is closely related to the emerging fields of [[neuropolitics]] (the study of the neural basis of political attitudes and behavior) and political physiology (the study of biophysical correlates of political attitudes and behavior).

In 2008, ''[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]'' reported on the increase in academicians' recognition of and engagement in genopolitics as a discrete field of study,<ref>{{cite news |last=Monastersky |first=Richard |date=September 19, 2008 |work=[[Chronicle of Higher Education]] |title=The Body Politic: Biology May Shape Political Views |url=http://chronicle.com/article/Biology-May-Shape-Political/1173}}</ref> and ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' included genopolitics in its "Eighth Annual Year in Ideas" for the same year, noting that the term was originally coined by [[James H. Fowler|James Fowler]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/14/magazine/14Ideas-Section2-B-t-007.html |last=Biuso |first=Emily |title=Genopolitics |newspaper=New York Times Magazine |date=December 12, 2008}}</ref> Critics of genopolitics have argued that it is "a fundamentally misguided undertaking", and that it is inconsistent with evidence in the fields of [[genetics]], [[neuroscience]], and [[evolutionary biology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charney |first1=Evan |last2=English |first2=William |date=May 2013 |title=Genopolitics and the Science of Genetics |journal=American Political Science Review |language=en |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=382–395 |doi=10.1017/S0003055413000099 |issn=0003-0554|hdl=10161/12548 |s2cid=10854801 |url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/12548/1/Charney-2013-Genopolitics%20and%20the%20Science%20of%20G.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Twin studies of political attitudes==
Psychologists and behavior geneticists began using twin studies in the 1980s to study variation in social attitudes, and these studies suggested that both genes and environment played a role. In particular, [[Nick Martin (scientist)|Nick Martin]] and his colleagues published an influential [[twin study]] of social attitudes in ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=N. G. |last2=Eaves |first2=L. J. |last3=Heath |first3=A. C. |last4=Jardine |first4=R. |last5=Feingold |first5=L. M. |last6=Eysenck |first6=H. J. |date=1986-06-01 |title=Transmission of social attitudes. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=83 |issue=12 |pages=4364–4368 |doi=10.1073/pnas.83.12.4364 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=323733 |pmid=3459179|bibcode=1986PNAS...83.4364M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

However, this early work did not specifically analyze whether or not political orientations were heritable, and political scientists remained mostly unaware of the heritability of social attitudes until 2005. In that year, the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' published a reanalysis of political questions on Martin's social attitude survey of twins in that the suggested liberal and conservative ideology is heritable.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Are Political Orientations Genetically Transmitted? |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=99 |pages=153–167 |year=2005 |last=Alford |first=John |author2=Carolyn Funk |author3=John Hibbing |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/s0003055405051579|citeseerx=10.1.1.622.476 |s2cid=3820911 }}</ref> The article sparked considerable debate between critics, the authors and their defenders.<ref name=Charney08-1>{{cite journal|last=Charney|first=Evan|title=Genes and Ideologies|journal=Perspectives on Politics|date=June 2008|volume=6|issue=2|pages=299–319|doi=10.1017/S1537592708080626|s2cid=56304983}}</ref><ref name=AFH08-1>{{cite journal|last=Alford|first=John R.|author2=Funk, Carolyn L. |author3=Hibbing, John R. |title=Beyond Liberals and Conservatives to Political Genotypes and Phenotypes|journal=Perspectives on Politics|date=June 2008|volume=6|issue=2|pages=321–328|doi=10.1017/S1537592708080638|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=poliscifacpub|citeseerx=10.1.1.458.5986|s2cid=224481}}</ref><ref name=Hannagan08>{{cite journal|last=Hannagan|first=Rebecca J.|author2=Hatemi, Peter K.|title=The Threat of Genes: A Comment on Evan Charney's "Genes and Ideologies"|journal=Perspectives on Politics|date=June 2008|volume=6|issue=2|pages=329–335|doi=10.1017/S153759270808064X|s2cid=12421116|url=http://ussc.edu.au/ussc/assets/media/docs/publications/04_Hannagan_Hatemi_PoP_2008.pdf|access-date=2012-07-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531105122/http://ussc.edu.au/ussc/assets/media/docs/publications/04_Hannagan_Hatemi_PoP_2008.pdf|archive-date=2014-05-31|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Charney08-2">{{Cite journal |last=Charney |first=Evan |date=June 2008 |title=Politics, Genetics, and "Greedy Reductionism" |url=http://www.sanford.duke.edu/research/papers/Perpectives-GeneticsJune2008.pdf#page=37 |journal=Perspectives on Politics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=337–343 |doi=10.1017/S1537592708080651 |s2cid=143243333 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308002322/http://www.sanford.duke.edu/research/papers/Perpectives-GeneticsJune2008.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-08}}</ref><ref name=Beckwith08>{{cite journal|last=Beckwith|first=Jon|author2=Morris, Corey A.|title=Twin Studies of Political Behavior: Untenable Assumptions?|journal=Perspectives on Politics|date=December 2008|volume=6|issue=4|pages=785–791|doi=10.1017/S1537592708081917|s2cid=55630117|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/morris-singer/files/perspectives_on_politics.pdf}}</ref><ref name=AFH08-2>{{cite journal|last=Alford|first=John R.|author2=Funk, Carolyn L. |author3=Hibbing, John R. |title=Twin Studies, Molecular Genetics, Politics, and Tolerance: A Response to Beckwith and Morris|journal=Perspectives on Politics|date=December 2008|volume=6|issue=4|pages=793–797|doi=10.1017/S1537592708081929|s2cid=15466249|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=poliscifacpub|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

A more recent analysis of multiple twin studies finds that political views are approximately 40 percent heritable. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dawes |first1=Christopher T. |last2=Weinschenk |first2=Aaron C. |title=On the genetic basis of political orientation |journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences |date=2020 |volume=34 |pages=173–178 |doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.03.012}}</ref>

==Twin studies of political behavior==
Initial twin studies suggested that predispositions toward espousal of certain political ideas are heritable, but they said little about political behavior (patterns of voting and/or activism) or predispositions toward it. A 2008 article published in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' matched publicly available voter registration records to a [[twin registry]] in Los Angeles, analyzed self-reported [[voter turnout]] in the [[National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health]] (Add Health), and studied other forms of [[political participation]]. In all three cases, both genes and environment contributed significantly to variation in political behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Genetic Variation in Political Participation |last=Fowler |first=James H. |author2=Laura A. Baker |author3=Christopher T. Dawes |journal=American Political Science Review |url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/genetic_basis_of_political_cooperation.pdf |issue=2 |volume=102 |pages=233–248 |date=May 2008 |doi=10.1017/S0003055408080209 |citeseerx=10.1.1.165.4773 |s2cid=1984498 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-date=2019-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128100327/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/genetic_basis_of_political_cooperation.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

However, other studies showed that the decision to affiliate with any political party and the strength of this attachment are significantly influenced by genes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Is There a Party in Your Genes? |journal=Political Research Quarterly |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=584–600 |year=2009 |last=Hatemi |first=Peter K. |author2=John Hibbing |author3=John Alford |author4=Nicholas Martin |author5=Lindon Eaves |ssrn= 1276482 |doi=10.1177/1065912908327606 |s2cid=12902201 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Heritability of Partisan Attachment |journal=Political Research Quarterly |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=601–613 |year=2009 |last=Settle |first=Jaime E. |author2=Christopher T. Dawes |author3=James H. Fowler |url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/heritability_of_partisan_attachment.pdf |doi=10.1177/1065912908327607 |citeseerx=10.1.1.315.1396 |s2cid=16489393 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616133630/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/heritability_of_partisan_attachment.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Gene association studies==

===Candidate genes===
Scholars therefore recently turned their attention to specific genes that might be associated with political behaviors and attitudes. In the first-ever research to link specific genes to political phenotypes, a direct association was established between voter turnout and monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and a gene–environment interaction between turnout and the serotonin transporter (5HTT) gene among those who frequently participated in religious activities.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout |last=Fowler |first=James H. |author2=Christopher T. Dawes |journal=Journal of Politics |date=July 2008 |url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/two_genes_predict_voter_turnout.pdf |issue=3 |volume=70 |pages=579–594 |doi=10.1017/S0022381608080638 |citeseerx=10.1.1.168.456 |s2cid=11408064 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-date=2019-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128100328/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/two_genes_predict_voter_turnout.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In other research scholars have also found an association between voter turnout and a dopamine receptor (DRD2) gene that is mediated by a significant association between that gene and the tendency to affiliate with a political party.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Partisanship, Voting, and the Dopamine D2 Receptor Gene |journal=The Journal of Politics |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=1157–1171 |last=Dawes |first=Christopher T. |author2=James H. Fowler |url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/partisanship_voting_and_drd2.pdf |doi=10.1017/S002238160909094X |year=2008 |s2cid=203452977 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-date=2019-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128100328/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/partisanship_voting_and_drd2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{clarify|reason=Please state specific conclusion of study, i.e., relationship between specific gene variant and specific ideology.|date=November 2015}} More recent studies show an interaction between friendships and the dopamine receptor (DRD4) gene that is associated with political ideology.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Friendships Moderate an Association Between a Dopamine Gene Variant and Political Ideology |last=Settle |first=Jaime E. |author2=Christopher T. Dawes |author3=Peter K. Hatemi |author4=Nicholas A. Christakis |author5=James H. Fowler |url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/friends_drd4_and_political_ideology.pdf |year=2008 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-date=2019-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210155654/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/friends_drd4_and_political_ideology.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{clarify|reason=Please state specific conclusion of study, i.e., relationship between specific gene variant and specific ideology.|date=November 2015}}</ref> Although this work is preliminary and needs replication, it suggests that neurotransmitter function has an important effect on political behavior.

The candidate genes approach to genopolitics received substantial criticism in a 2012 article, published in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'', which argued that many of the candidate genes identified in the above research are associated with innumerable traits and behaviors. The degree to which these genes are associated with so many outcomes thus undermines the apparent important of evidence linking a gene to any particular outcome.<ref>Charney, Evan, and English, William. (2012). Candidate Genes and Political Behavior. American Political Science Review 106(1):1-34.</ref>

===Linkage analysis===
Employing a more general approach, researchers used genome-wide [[Genetic linkage|linkage]] analysis to identify chromosomal regions associated with political attitudes assessed using scores on a liberalism-conservativism scale.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Genome-Wide Analysis of Liberal and Conservative Political Attitudes|last=Hatemi|first=P. K.|journal=The Journal of Politics|issue=1|volume=73|pages=271–285|url=http://www.vipbg.vcu.edu/~nathan/publications/Hatemi2011.pdf|date=January 2011|doi=10.1017/S0022381610001015|display-authors=etal|citeseerx=10.1.1.662.2987|access-date=2012-07-22|archive-date=2015-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811111058/http://www.vipbg.vcu.edu/~nathan/publications/Hatemi2011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Their analysis identified several significant linkage peaks and the associated chromosomal regions implicate a possible role for NMDA and glutamate related receptors in forming political attitudes. However, this role is speculative as linkage analysis cannot identify the effect of individual genes.

===Other explanations===
Associations between genetic markers and political behavior are often assumed to predict a causal connection between the two. Scholars have little incentive to be skeptical of this presumed causal link. Yet it is possible that a confounding factor exists which makes the genetic relationship with politics purely correlative. For instance work on Irish parties, which shows some evidence of a genetic basis for the otherwise inexplicable distinction between the historically two main parties there, is also and more easily explained by socialization.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Byrne|first1=Kevin P.|title=Politics with Hidden Bases: Unearthing the Deep Roots of Party Systems|journal=British Journal of Politics and International Relations|date=2012|volume=14|issue=4|pages=613–629|doi=10.1111/j.1467-856X.2011.00478.x|s2cid=49524008|url=http://www.kevinbyrne.org/pubs/ByrneOMalley2012.pdf|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Biology and political science]], sometimes called [[biopolitics]]
* [[Biology and political orientation]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |title=Biology, Politics, and the Emerging Science of Human Nature |last=Fowler |first=James H. |author2=Darren Schreiber |journal=Science |url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/biology_and_politics.pdf |issue=5903 |volume=322 |pages=912–914 |date=7 November 2008 |pmid=18988845 |doi=10.1126/science.1158188 |bibcode=2008Sci...322..912F |s2cid=206512952 |access-date=16 December 2008 |archive-date=25 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013317/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/biology_and_politics.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122047003725696177 |title=The Biology of Ideology |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=May 27, 2008}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/27/opinion/27tue4.html |title=It's the Genes Stupid |newspaper=New York Times |date=Sep 4, 2008}}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=the-genetics-of-politics |title=The Genetics of Politics |newspaper=Scientific American |date=November 2007}}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/HEALTH/02/11/politics.genes/index.html |title=Are Politics Rooted in Your Genes? |newspaper=CNN |date=February 11, 2008}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/21/science/21gene.html |title=Some Politics May Be Etched in the Genes |newspaper=New York Times |date=June 21, 2005 |first=Benedict |last=Carey |access-date=May 3, 2010}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Hatemi | first1 = P. K. | last2 = McDermott | first2 = R. | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2012.07.004 | title = The genetics of politics: Discovery, challenges, and progress | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 28 | issue = 10 | pages = 525–533 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22951140}}
* {{cite journal |title=Politics with Hidden Bases: Unearthing the Deep Roots of Party Systems |last= Byrne|first=Kevin P. | author2= Eoin O’Malley |journal=British Journal of Politics and International Relations |url= http://www.kevinbyrne.org/pubs/ByrneOMalley2012.pdf | volume=14|issue= 4| pages=613–629|doi= 10.1111/j.1467-856X.2011.00478.x |year= 2012|s2cid= 49524008}}

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